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Other studies have shown correlation between neutralization by antivenoms of PLA 2 activity in vitro and neutralization of lethality in mice in the cases of venoms of Bothrops asper ( 41), Crotalus durissus terrificus ( 42), and Micrurus nigrocinctus ( 22), using simple indirect hemolytic assays for the determination of PLA 2 activity. Further studies are necessary to assess whether these in vitro enzymatic assays correlate with lethality in a larger number of venoms and antivenoms. There are venoms in which the main toxicity is due to presynaptically-acting neurotoxic PLA 2s ( 43). Such are the cases of Oxyuranus scutellatus, Crotalus durissus, and Bungarus sp venoms, characterized by the presence of the potent PLA 2 neurotoxins taipoxin, crotoxin and bungarotoxin, respectively ( 44). It is likely that the neutralization by antivenoms of PLA 2 activity in vitro of these venoms or purified β-neurotoxins correlates with the neutralization of lethality. Owing to the simplicity and low cost of these in vitro assays, they could be highly convenient for introduction in antivenom manufacturing laboratories to assess the development of immune response in horses and for in-process analysis of the neutralizing potency of antivenoms, with the consequent reduction in the number of mice. Surrogate Tests for The Study of Neutralization of Other Toxic Activities Regulatory approval of the therapeutic agent to be used in the market and in post-marketing supervision, as well as pharmacovigilance. Another study published in the Journal Ethnopharmacology has demonstrated the effect of Annona senegalensis root bark extracts on Naja nigricotlis nigricotlis venom in rats.
Administration of the methanolic extracts from Vitis vinifera (Vitaceae) resulted in the reduction of local symptoms produced by D. russelli venom due to the inhibition of the proteolytic and hyaluronidase activities reducing edema, myonecrosis, and hemorrhaging.
Conflict of Interest
The term “natural products” spans an extremely large and diverse range of chemical compounds derived and isolated from biological sources such as plants, minerals, and organic matter. Interest in natural products that have been used for over a thousand years is continuing based on the experience of randomized trials and animal observations. In ancient times, people acquired knowledge on plant use to treat diseases. For example, Chinese herbal medicine (CHM) and Indian herbal medicine (Ayurvedic) were highly developed in antiquity. China, Japan, Korea, and India still influence modern healthcare [ 32]. In recent years, natural products have experienced a resurgence in drug discovery programs, mainly due to their superior chemical diversity over synthetic compound libraries and their drug-like properties. There are several widely used drugs derived from natural sources, which are available in the form of food supplements, nutraceuticals, and complementary and alternative medicines. In fact, some widely used drugs used to treat certain life-threatening diseases are derived from natural sources, such as paclitaxel and artemisinin, which are used as anticancer and antimalarial agents, respectively [ 38]. plant species belonging to at least 30 families. Neutralization activity of Costa Rican plants towards B. asper venom and toxins The researchers concluded: “In addition, extract neutralised the pharmacological effects such as edema, hemorrhage, and myotoxic effects including lethality, induced by venom. Since, it inhibits both hydrolytic enzymes and pharmacological effects; it may be used as an alternative treatment to serum therapy and, in addition, as a rich source of potential inhibitors of hydrolytic enzymes involved in several physio-pathological diseases.” In the cases of venoms whose predominant toxins represent a high percentage of venom composition, ELISAs using crude venoms are likely to give a good correlation with in vivo toxicity tests. This is the case of the venom of the South American rattlesnake C. d. terrificus, in which the potent neurotoxin crotoxin comprises 60% of the venom ( 26). Similarly, the venom of the cobra Naja kaouthia has a high concentration of α-neurotoxins which display the highest toxicity score ( 27). It is necessary to explore medically relevant venoms and their corresponding antivenoms to establish in which cases good correlation between ELISA and neutralization of lethality can be achieved by using crude venoms or when it is recommended to use purified toxins. Passive Hemagglutination and Hemagglutination Inhibition
The venom of the Temple Viper which Syn-ake is designed to mimic, paralyzes the muscles to weaken their prey. Syn-ake was created to mimic this action by creating a synthetic peptide with the same amino acid sequence as the Waglerin-1 peptide. The Waglerin-1 peptide was identified as the cause of the paralysis in the snake’s venom. By creating a chemically similar structure, the synthetic peptide is able to produce a similar effect. It is thought that the molecule is small enough to penetrate the skin and work on the facial muscles, however, due to how deep these muscles are under the skin, only small amounts of the molecule will get through. This means that Syn-ake’s effects are generally temporary, lasting for about a month and reducing the likelihood of off-target effects. Today, many people depend on injectable neurotoxins to treat wrinkles, pigmentation, skin roughness, laxity and fine lines. Scientists have also demonstrated the anti-venom potential of aqueous extract of stem bark of Mangifera indica against Daboia russellii (Russell’s viper) venom.
Review discussing Brazilian plant species displaying neutralizing properties against snake envenomation from an ethnopharmacological perspective Infusions and crushed leaves from Marsypianthes chamaedrys (Lamiaceae) showed a similar activity produced by antivenom serum against clotting and inflammatory effects of the Bothrops atrox venom
Keep an eye on:There is a potential hazard for the peptide to travel through the body and have off-target effects on other muscle groups in the body, potentially causing generalized muscle weakness. How Is Venom Used in Medicine? José María Gutiérrez 1* Mariángela Vargas 1 Álvaro Segura 1 María Herrera 1 Mauren Villalta 1 Gabriela Solano 1 Andrés Sánchez 1 Cristina Herrera 2 Guillermo León 1 Anti-hepatotoxic, anti-hypertensive, anti-tumor, anti-PLA 2, anti-snake venom, and anti-myotoxic-induced PLA 2. Ahuja and Brooks ( 13) described an in vitro hemolysis test for assessing the neutralizing potency of cobra antivenom in India, which correlated with the neutralization of lethality. In South Africa, Paul A. Christensen studied several in vitro activities of venoms (hemolysis, rennin-like effect, gelatinase and anticoagulant activities) and their neutralization by antivenoms. He found no correlation between the neutralization of lethality and in vitro hemolysis in the case of Naja flava (now Naja nivea) venom ( 14). As will be described later, no generalizations can be made regarding the possible substitution of in vivo toxicity tests by in vitro assays, owing to the great variability in the composition and action of snake venoms. Enzyme Immunoassays Venom has been used throughout history to treat illness and there has been a significant amount of research in recent times into the potential applications of synthetic venoms to treat a variety of ailments. For example, ziconotide from cone snails to treat chronic pain or lepirudin from leeches to prevent blood clots.plant species belonging to 29 genera and 17 compounds with antiophidian activity or relative properties against venoms from 34 snake species Syn-ake is a synthetic peptide or syn-peptide. Syn peptides are small synthetic proteins that are modeled off a non-synthetic or real-world peptide. In the case of Syn-ake, it is a synthetic peptide that is modeled off a protein found in the venom of the Temple Viper. The peptide that Syn-ake mimics is Waglerin-1. Waglerin-1 prevents the uptake of sodium by the muscles by working on the mnAchR receptor. Preventing the uptake of sodium inhibits the transmission of nerve impulses to the muscles, and the muscles stay relaxed. This relaxation of the muscles, much like Botox, reduces the appearance of fine lines and wrinkles. Until now, snakebite poisoning remains a public health hazard in tropical countries. Viper snakes are among the most common types of venomous snakes, which are responsible for many envenoming and deaths in most tropical areas.
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